Prepare-and-Measure Certified Deletion

This example protocol implements the functionality of Quantum Encryption with Certified Deletion using single-qubit state preparation and measurement. This scheme is limited to the single-use, private-key setting.

Requirements

• Network Stage: Prepare and Measure

Outline

The scheme consists of 5 circuits-

• Key: This circuit generates the key used in later stages
• Enc: This circuit encrypts the message using the key
• Dec: This circuit decrypts the ciphertext using the key and generates an error flag bit
• Del: This circuit deletes the ciphertext state and generates a deletion certificate
• Ver: This circuit verifies the validity of the deletion certificate using the key

Notation

• For any string Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle x\in \{0,1\}^{n}} and set Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle {\mathcal {I}}\subseteq [n],x|_{\mathcal {I}}} denotes the string $x$ restricted to the bits indexed by ${\mathcal {I}}$
• For $x,\theta \in \{0,1\}^{n},|x^{\theta }\rangle =H^{\theta }|x\rangle =H^{\theta _{1}}|x_{1}\rangle \otimes H^{\theta _{2}}|x_{2}\rangle \otimes ...\otimes H^{\theta _{n}}|x_{n}\rangle$
• Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle {\mathcal {Q}}:=\mathbb {C} ^{2}} denotes the state space of a single qubit,Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle {\mathcal {Q}}(n):={\mathcal {Q}}^{\otimes n}}
• Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle {\mathcal {D(H)}}} denotes the set of density operators on a Hilbert space Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle {\mathcal {H}}}
• Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \lambda } : Security parameter
• $n$: Length, in bits, of the message
• Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \omega :\{0,1\}\rightarrow \mathbb {N} }  : Hamming weight function
• Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle m=\kappa (\lambda )} : Total number of qubits sent from encrypting party to decrypting party
• Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle k} : Length, in bits, of the string used for verification of deletion
• $s=m-k$: Length, in bits, of the string used for extracting randomness
• Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \tau =\tau (\lambda )} : Length, in bits, of error correction hash
• Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \mu =\mu (\lambda )} : Length, in bits, of error syndrome
• Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \theta } : Basis in which the encrypting party prepare her quantum state
• $\delta$: Threshold error rate for the verification test
• Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \Theta } : Set of possible bases from which \theta is chosen
• Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {H}}_{pa}} : UniversalFailed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle _{2}} family of hash functions used in the privacy amplification scheme
• Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {H}}_{ec}} : Universal$_{2}$ family of hash functions used in the error correction scheme
• Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle H_{pa}} : Hash function used in the privacy amplification scheme
• Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle H_{ec}} : Hash function used in the error correction scheme
• Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle synd} : Function that computes the error syndrome
• Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle corr} : Function that computes the corrected string

Protocol Description

Circuit 1: Key

The key generation circuit

Input : None

Output: A key state Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \rho \in {\mathcal {D}}({\mathcal {Q}}(k+m+n+\mu +\tau )\otimes {\mathfrak {H}}_{pa}\otimes {\mathfrak {H}}_{ec}}

1. Sample $\theta \gets \Theta$
2. Sample Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle r|_{\tilde {\mathcal {I}}}\gets \{0,1\}^{k}} where Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle {\tilde {\mathcal {I}}}=\{i\in [m]|\theta _{i}=1\}}
3. Sample $u\gets \{0,1\}^{n}$
4. Sample $d\gets \{0,1\}^{\mu }$
5. Sample Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle e\gets \{0,1\}^{\tau }}
6. Sample $H_{pa}\gets {\mathfrak {H}}_{pa}$
7. Sample Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle H_{ec}\gets {\mathfrak {H}}_{ec}}
8. Output $\rho =|r|_{\tilde {\mathcal {I}}},\theta ,u,d,e,H_{pa},H_{ec}\rangle \langle r|_{\tilde {\mathcal {I}}},\theta ,u,d,e,H_{pa},H_{ec}|$

Circuit 2: Enc

The encryption circuit

Input : A plaintext state Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle |\mathrm {msg} \rangle \langle \mathrm {msg} |} and a key state $|r|_{\tilde {\mathcal {I}}},\theta ,u,d,e,H_{pa},H_{ec}\rangle \langle r|_{\tilde {\mathcal {I}}},\theta ,u,d,e,H_{pa},H_{ec}|\in {\mathcal {D}}({\mathcal {Q}}(k+m+n+\mu +\tau )\otimes {\mathfrak {H}}_{pa}\otimes {\mathfrak {H}}_{ec}$

Output: A ciphertext state Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \rho \in {\mathcal {D}}({\mathcal {Q}}(m+n+\tau +\mu ))}

1. Sample Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle r|_{\mathcal {I}}\gets \{0,1\}^{s}} where ${\mathcal {I}}=\{i\in [m]|\theta _{i}=0\}$
2. Compute Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle x = H_{pa}(r|_\mathcal{I})} where ${\mathcal {I}}=\{i\in [m]|\theta _{i}=0\}$
3. Compute $p=H_{ec}(r|_{\mathcal {I}})\oplus d$
4. Compute $q=\mathrm {synd} (r|_{\mathcal {I}})\oplus e$
5. Output Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \rho = |r^\theta\rangle\langle r^\theta |\otimes|\mathrm{msg}\oplus x \oplus u,p,q\rangle\langle \mathrm{msg}\oplus x \oplus u,p,q |}

Circuit 3: Dec

The decryption circuit

Input : A key state $|r|_{\tilde {\mathcal {I}}},\theta ,u,d,e,H_{pa},H_{ec}\rangle \langle r|_{\tilde {\mathcal {I}}},\theta ,u,d,e,H_{pa},H_{ec}|\in {\mathcal {D}}({\mathcal {Q}}(k+m+n+\mu +\tau )\otimes {\mathfrak {H}}_{pa}\otimes {\mathfrak {H}}_{ec}$ and a ciphertext $\rho \otimes |c,p,q\rangle \langle c,p,q|\in {\mathcal {D}}({\mathcal {Q}}(m+n+\mu +\tau ))$

Output: A plaintext state $\sigma \in {\mathcal {D}}({\mathcal {Q}}(n))$ and an error flag $\gamma \in {\mathcal {D}}({\mathcal {Q}})$

1. Compute $\rho ^{\prime }=\mathrm {H} ^{\theta }\rho \mathrm {H} ^{\theta }$
2. Measure $\rho ^{\prime }$ in the computational basis. Call the result $r$
3. Compute Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle r^{\prime }=\mathrm {corr} (r|_{\mathcal {I}},q\oplus e)} where ${\mathcal {I}}=\{i\in [m]|\theta _{i}=0\}$
4. Compute Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle p^{\prime }=H_{ec}(r^{\prime })\oplus d}
5. If $p\neq p^{\prime }$, then set Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \gamma =|0\rangle \langle 0|} . Else, set Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \gamma =|1\rangle \langle 1|}
6. Compute Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle x^{\prime }=H_{pa}(r^{\prime })}
7. Output Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \rho \otimes \gamma =|c\oplus x^{\prime }\oplus u\rangle \langle c\oplus x^{\prime }\oplus u|\otimes \gamma }

Circuit 4: Del

The deletion circuit

Input : A ciphertext $\rho \otimes |c,p,q\rangle \langle c,p,q|\in {\mathcal {D}}({\mathcal {Q}}(m+n+\mu +\tau ))$

Output: A certificate string Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \sigma \in {\mathcal {D}}({\mathcal {Q}}(m))}

1. Measure $\rho$ in the Hadamard basis. Call the output y.
2. Output Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \sigma =|y\rangle \langle y|}

Circuit 5: Ver

The verification circuit

Input : A key state $|r|_{\tilde {\mathcal {I}}},\theta ,u,d,e,H_{pa},H_{ec}\rangle \langle r|_{\tilde {\mathcal {I}}},\theta ,u,d,e,H_{pa},H_{ec}|\in {\mathcal {D}}({\mathcal {Q}}(k+m+n+\mu +\tau )\otimes {\mathfrak {H}}_{pa}\otimes {\mathfrak {H}}_{ec}$ and a certificate string Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |y\rangle\langle y| \in \mathcal{D}(\mathcal{Q}(m))}

Output: A bit

1. Compute Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat y^\prime = \hat y|_\mathcal{\tilde{I}}} where Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mathcal{\tilde{I}} = \{i \in [m] | \theta_i = 1 \}}
2. Compute Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle q = r|_\tilde{\mathcal{I}}}
3. If Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \omega(q\oplus \hat y^\prime) < k\delta} , output Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 1} . Else, output Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 0} .

Properties

This scheme has the following properties:

• Correctness: The scheme includes syndrome and correction functions and is thus robust against a certain amount of noise, i.e. below a certain noise threshold, the decryption circuit outputs the original message with high probability.
• Ciphertext Indistinguishability: This notion implies that an adversary, given a ciphertext, cannot discern whether the original plaintext was a known message or a dummy plaintext Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 0^n}
• Certified Deletion Security: After producing a valid deletion certificate, the adversary cannot obtain the original message, even if the key is leaked (after deletion).

References

• The scheme along with its formal security definitions and their proofs can be found in Broadbent & Islam (2019)

*contributed by Chirag Wadhwa